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About the Cover. Bluetongue BT is a reportable disease of consider- able socioeconomic concern and of major importance in the international trade of animals and animal products. Be- fore , BT was considered an exotic disease in Europe. In addition, the radial extension of BTV-8 across Europe increases the risk for an encounter between this serotype and others, particularly those that oc- cur in the Mediterranean Basin, where vector activity con- tinues for more of the year.
This condition increases the risk for reassortment of individual BTV gene segments.
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BTV serotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 10 have a high pathogenic index and high epidemic poten- tial 4. However, a high genetic diversity of BTV exists that is a consequence of both drift i. BT is a World Organization for Animal Health report- able disease and is of considerable socioeconomic concern and of major importance in the international trade of ani- mals and animal products 4. Before , BT was con- sidered an exotic disease in Europe with just a few sporadic. To this ef- fect, we provide a short overview of the epidemiologic situation in Europe, followed by a brief description of the susceptible species, a discussion of the vectorial capac- ity and competence of the Culicoides spp.
Epidemiologic Situation in Europe. BTV in EU, — This emergence of BT into parts of Europe never before affected was attributed mainly to climate change and was linked to the northern ex- pansion of the major Old World vector Culicoides imicola Kieffer , which is an Afro-Asiatic species of biting midge Additionally, novel indigenous European vector spe- cies of Culicoides within the Obsoletus and Pulicaris com- plexes were involved. In the Mediterranean Basin 2 epidemiologic systems seem to predominate.
The vectors included other spe- cies of Culicoides in addition to C. Year of first outbreak. BTV serotype s. Main suspected or identified vector s. Culicoides obsoletus, C. Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. France Corsica. Although the appearance of BTV serotype 16 in this C. In this region, in , a pool of 50 nonengorged, parous C.
Although isolation of live BTV was not attempted in either instance, this research, conducted in an area where C. Because C. Moreover, in relation to the demonstrated overwinter- ing ability of the virus in northern Europe, small numbers of adult Culicoides spp. Whether the oc- currence of these midges and the possibility of their activ- ity extending over the winter in such climatically protected locations can explain the persistence of virus from 1 vector transmission season to the next 13 or whether they repre- sent newly emerged midges from nearby breeding sites is not known Several hypotheses have been formulated to explain the overwintering ability of BTV: by persistence.
Figure 1. The molecular epidemiology of bluetongue virus BTV since routes of introduction of different serotypes and individual virus strains.
Figure 2. After January 1, , few BTV cases were reported; those that were probably involved animals that had been infected, but not detected, in The focus of interest now is to see if BTV is able to survive regularly between vector seasons and become en- demic to northern Europe. Unlike farther south, where populations of the traditional vector, C. In the period from January 1, , through December 28, , 12 EU member states and Switzerland reported BT outbreaks on their territories, comprising all of the serotypes reported in Europe since Figure 4 29, Susceptible Species BTV is transmitted between its ruminant hosts almost exclusively through the bites of the females of vector species of the Culicoides biting midge The global distribution of BTV, therefore, is restricted to those regions where these vector species of Culicoides occur, and its transmission pe- riod is limited to the times when adult vectors are active.
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Depending on the species, adult vector activity generally starts some time in spring. BTV can infect a broad spectrum of domestic and wild ruminants. However, serious clinical signs have been ob- served only in certain breeds of sheep improved breeds and a few deer species 32, Cattle and goats usually exhibit subclinical infections and therefore may serve as important and covert viral reservoirs for sheep How- ever, some serotypes such as serotype 8, which recently caused infection in northern Europe, exhibit a more impor- tant virulence in cattle 34,35 with serious socioeconomic consequences 5.
Until recently, C. Vector competence of an insect species and vector ca- pacity of an insect population are important parameters in this respect Vector competence is the innate ability of a vector to acquire a pathogen, maintain it, and success- fully transmit it to a susceptible host Vector compe- tence may be determined in the laboratory by providing groups of insects of a particular species with blood meals of appropriate concentrations of virus and assessing infec- tion and transmission rates.
Figure 3. Figure 4. Number of bluetongue outbreaks in Europe since January 1, all serotypes. Vector capacity refers to the potential for virus trans- mission of an insect population and takes into account a range of insect, host, and environmental variables, includ- ing vector abundance, vector survival, biting and transmis- sion rates, host preferences, and host abundances, under a range of external e. Determining the 2 parameters explained above is es- sential to accurately estimate vector transmission rates and predict whether BTV will become established in an area.
Whether the virus becomes established in a new area depends upon the number and distribution of susceptible. Figure 5. In addition, the radial extension of BTV-8 across Europe including the jump across the English Channel Figure 5 39 increases the risk for an encounter between this serotype and others, particularly those that occur in the Mediterranean Basin second epidemiologic system. Indeed, the number of possible reassortments in the case of BTV, which has 10 segments, increases with the number of cocirculating serotypes e. Moreover, the phenomenon of reassortment has already been demon- strated during the — BTV outbreaks in Europe 5.
Furthermore, in the southern epidemiologic system, C. As the population abundance of C. With regard to prophylaxis, possibly the best strategic option for control of clinical BT outbreaks in the European endemic areas is vaccination of susceptible animals with inactivated vaccines to protect against disease and to ex- clude the possibility of reversion to virulence of the vaccine. Figure 6. Bluetongue virus BTV restriction zones in Europe, by serotype. This situation increases the risk for reassortment of individual BTV gene segments, and, in the more southerly areas, the period of vector activity is also likely to extend, leading to a longer BTV-8 season.
Veterinary authorities and legislators through- out northern Europe would do well take note of these recent and considerable changes in the epidemiology of BT. Acknowledgments We thank P. Mertens for data on the molecular epide- miology of BT. Dr Saegerman is professor of epidemiology and risk analysis applied to veterinary sciences in the Faculty of Veterinary Medi- cine, University of Liege. Roy P. Bluetongue virus proteins.
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J Gen Virol. Characterization of blu- etongue virus ribonucleic acid.