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Brussels attracted the majority of international railroad passengers with arriving per month and anticipated peaks of 2, during the summer months City orders of regulated the registration of new arrivals in the city. The keepers of lodging houses had to deposit daily guest lists, containing the names, profession, place of birth and residence of their visitors. They also needed to report their departure. Stagecoach drivers were not allowed to transport foreigners without passports.
The police enforced these measures with fines. Together with civil servants at the city gates, they were responsible for controlling unknown subjects and arresting people who could not prove their identity The monitoring of foreigners was a well-established task of the Brussels police, yet they refused to take on the additional responsibilities of the passport agents in The division fell under the responsibility of the mayor, yet also reported to the S.
The controls did not occur at the train stations to accommodate transit passengers with immediate connections. This seemed to make sense for those transiting abroad, but appeared less logical for passengers with other Belgian destinations. Identity controls occurred through the already established controls of lodging housekeepers where agents frequently passed to verify the identity documents and presence of foreigners based on the daily guest lists.
The agents timed their visits according to the arrival of the international trains. But the system also allowed them to capture those arriving on foot or by horse-driven transport.
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The absence of guests, or their refusal to leave their identity documents with the lodging housekeepers, often required repeated visits. Hence controls applied to overnight guests only, not to transit passengers It gave hotels who did adhere to the rules a competitive disadvantage if others could easily house irregular undocumented guests.
In order not to demoralize law-abiding hotel owners, abusers had to be severely penalized Coppens shows that the police collected evidence against recurrent offenders and fined them The head of the division conducted interviews of all foreigners passing through the station. He issued visas on international passports and kept separate indexes on suspicious cases and on expellees.
He worked in close collaboration with the S. Below him one agent took charge of the correspondence of the bureau, while another agent managed the archives.
Three assistants helped with visas and irregular papers, managing the index of all arriving foreigners and cross checking it with lists of wanted people or those who were signaled at the border Before that time, the gendarmerie still controlled passengers in border areas and pushed back the undesired see table 1. Hence controls were never fully lifted, yet statistics clearly show that the number of rejected foreigners at the borders plummeted after At the same time the number of people escorted from the interior to the border because lack of means strongly increased.
Other categories such as convicted criminals and unescorted expulsion show only minor deviations. The statistics indicate that softening controls at the borders, went hand in hand with tightening controls on people without means in the interior. The steady increase only reversed when border controls were reintroduced.
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Refusals at the border would not reach their levels until they skyrocketed to unprecedented levels in due to the political instability caused by the foundation of the French second Republic. Despite a drop after the exceptional year, high levels were sustained until a period of gradual decline in These high levels of rejections at the border were not compensated for by a decrease of expulsions from the interior after Conversely these rates also increased and sustained high levels.
The next five years the numbers remained high, revealing a sustained vigilance and tightening of controls both inland and at the border. Table 1: Expelled removed and pushed back foreigners in Belgium Overseeing them was made easier by the introduction, in , of population registers in which all Belgian communities inscribed personal information of all their inhabitants and their movements. Belgium pioneered this practice, while other states like France considered such registration a violation of personal liberties. France only started imposing this, exclusively on foreigners, in Population registers spurred record keeping at local levels and this facilitated the reporting of foreigners to the S.
Brussels excelled in this as it invested more in policing than any other city. Those considered to be dangerous were brought to the prosecutor on charges of vagrancy.
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These individuals, along with all other foreigners, were reported in a bulletin Remarkably even when passport laws were repealed in the , the division continued to be subsidized at least until They still screened the lodging house registers and reported all foreigners to the S. The identity controls had also been reinstated at maritime ports of entry.
According to the Antwerp superintendent of the maritime police, letting unknown people through without papers went against the basic guidelines of good policing. Others criticized the measures for causing delays and missed transit connections Graph 1: Annual expulsions from the interior and refusals at the border This division made alphabetical lists of foreigners entering the country and those residing in it.
They crosschecked the information indexes of foreigners to control the reporting accuracy of lodging housekeepers. The division established monthly list of expellees. It managed all incoming passports and identity documents. Finally, it also kept an index of passports used by foreigners and a list of passports sent to mayors of border towns to be collected by expellees when leaving.
The second division took charge of all correspondence with Belgian and foreign authorities on all levels and with private persons. This division created individual files per sojourning foreigner complementing the bulletin with marriage certificates, court and police reports, etc.
It made an alphabetical list of foreigners who had been convicted abroad. Agents managed a registry, of foreigners, organized per country of birth, who resided and had resided in Belgium. They formulated advisory reports on naturalization files and requests to carry weapons. Finally, they issued sojourn permits to the eligible.
The third division kept a register of all the convicted foreigners in Belgium and another register for all the expellees. Both included an index. The division gave instructions about how to handle accused foreigners. This bureau drafted all correspondence with judicial authorities, prison wardens and the gendarmerie to coordinate the expulsion of convicted foreigners.
It organized the prison wagons and its agents which brought expellees to the border. The third division crosschecked their information with alphabetical lists of convicts of correctional courts. They also kept information bulletins of Belgians who were convicted abroad. The fourth division took charge of the archives. The fifth division mailed all correspondence, managed transcripts and processed all circulars. Finally, the cabinet managed all exclusive matters of the Administrator and heads of divisions.
It managed the bookkeeping, library and material aspects of operations Lists and indexes of different categories served to rapidly trace individuals and cross check existing data with daily incoming information. Yet Scholars have downplayed the size and functioning of the S. During the period under study the funds balanced around 60, francs, which was 0.
The agency, which started off with the administrator and five subordinates, was permanently understaffed.
The scarce data on personnel size is estimated at about fifteen to twenty agents after the s Innovations were adopted in order to manage and store information, such as index cards or specialized cabinets, and these improved the efficiency of the limited personnel. He compensated for these shortcomings by relying on a great number of institutions to provide the information and carry out orders.
This reliance also constituted its greatest weakness, as the monitoring depended on the goodwill of others. The constant reminders to local authorities, and especially to rural communities, about their reporting duties illustrate this. Nonetheless the preserved archives of the S. Scholars have noted that central states justified the investments in bureaucratization, standardization and identification as a means to protect society from marginalized groups, such as nomads, vagabonds or foreigners.
This process served to marginalize migrants from the rest of the population and established paper borders Urban studies have shown that national definitions of belonging were translated into administrative practices in bigger cities such as Antwerp or Brussels in the s. At times, this led to conflicts of interests between local and national administrations Passport agents resumed identity controls and forwarded lists of entrants to the S.
With the assistance of gendarmes, the screening was finished before the luggage controls carried out by customs agents.
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Railroads did not complain until the controls tightened and expanded from foreign travelers only, to also include commuters from border communities. Since many of them were known to border officials, commuters had passed unchecked, and therefore failed to procure papers. Only upper-class travelers were subjected to this obligation and controls, allowing common laborers to cross with any identity document which was rarely checked When abuses of this leniency became too flagrant, or during political unrests, such privileges were momentarily revoked.
Yet generally people from these regions, even those from higher classes, could enter the country with any kind of identity papers, or indeed even without papers when they were known to agents controlling the border and in towns they visited. These measures were intended to prevent the border from forming a disruption to trade between local markets Correspondence confirms that by the end of , cross border commuters passed relatively unchecked once again. The daytime trains were known to carry mainly Belgian and French commuters who did not go further than Mons.
They were not registered on the lists sent to the S. Since such trains carried fewer international travelers, passport verification was often much faster. International travelers mainly used the night train coming directly from Paris Identity controls of upper-class railroad travelers persisted even when political stability retuned. The agents only withheld those with invalid documents. French nationals were especially vulnerable after the coup in December when they required a visa from Belgian diplomats to be able to enter. The passport agent offered to send the documents of French travelers without visa, along with a copy of their signature, to the consul of Lille by express mail, at their cost The transition of taking over the passenger and postal transport from stagecoaches went very rapidly as witnessed by the passport agent stationed in Menin.
As nodal point in road networks Menin had been the most important border crossing point between the Southern Netherlands and France since the seventeenth century Yet its dominance quickly declined when the railroad connecting Ghent with Lille opened via the border town of Mouscron. Two weeks after the opening of the railroads the passport agent in Menin reported a serious decline in passengers on the daily stagecoaches between Lille and Courtrai or Ypres.
The traffic no longer justified his presence, yet abandoning his post could turn Menin into a hub for people seeking to avoid controls And yet even during the political instability caused by the establishment of the second republic ten years later, passport agents were not reappointed at land border points.
Railroads denounced the discriminatory effects of border controls on their passengers, yet the S. The problem of uniform controls no longer posed an issue for the S. On the contrary, they argued that, identity checks strengthened the sense of security and actually attracted tourists The efficiency of such controls overall is debatable. Nonetheless the S. Sometimes it also signaled undesired foreigners to obstruct their entry.
Security considerations outweighed the commercial interest of railroads in the end. This is not surprising since states have been known to impose migration policies on transport companies. For instance, to compensate for their lack of resources authorities used transatlantic shipping companies as an integrated part of their border control system and did not refrain from using carrier sanctions to ensure their collaboration Brussels city rules of also adopted this policy prohibiting stagecoach drivers from transporting foreigners without passports. Hence, it is striking that Belgian authorities did not impose such responsibilities such as requesting identity checks and composing passenger lists, on railroads.
This occurred following repeated unanswered requests by railroad bosses to transfer passport agents on board to conduct controls while moving. To reduce travel time, the Belgian railroads pleaded, successfully, to expedite border controls in order to fight off new competition from the Chemin de Fer de Strasbourg for traffic between Germany and France Yet as the station fell under local police authority, the S. Cuban male prostitutes are called jinetero — literally "horse jockey"; female prostitutes are called jinetera.