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A total of two-parent families 27 lesbian, 29 gay, 50 heterosexual couples and their eldest adopted child in the age range of 1—5 years old; i. In W2, 96 families participated 26 lesbian, 29 gay, 41 heterosexual couples in some capacity. The retention rate between W1 and W2 for this sample was Of the families represented in the measures used in this paper at W2, almost half Gender was almost equally split among children At the time of data collection during W2, children were 8.
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Additional participant demographic information from W2 can be found in Table 1 see Farr, for sample demographics at W1. To recruit participants for W1, researchers collaborated with five domestic private infant adoption agencies in the US mentioned previously. Agency directors then forwarded a study invite to families with whom children had been placed recently or within the past few years. Both parents individually completed a demographic questionnaire and other measures via paper-and-pen surveys during the visit. Participants in W1 were recontacted by the research team about 5 years later and invited to participate in W2.
Some measures below were administered only during W2, and some were administered in both waves—all were self-report. Questionnaires at W2 were administered via the online survey platform Qualtrics. Parents independently completed surveys at their leisure. Children were assisted with completing the child-level questionnaire [i. Participants were not compensated, and participation was voluntary. All study materials and procedures were approved by the Institutional Review Boards of the University of Virginia, the University of Massachusetts Amherst, and the University of Kentucky.
Data were collected between — W1 and — W2. Parents were also asked for their date of birth and that of the target child to assess their age at the time of data collection during both waves. Child and parent gender, total household income, parent education status, and parent sexual orientation were also assessed.
In W1, eight of the mothers in female-partnered couples and two of the mothers with male partners identified as bisexual. One male parent with a female partner identified as bisexual in W1. In W2, five of the mothers in the female-partnered couples identified as bisexual, and two mothers in the female-partnered couples self-identified as queer.
Given the small cell sizes in our analyses, we include individuals in different-gender couples as heterosexual and participants in same-gender couples as lesbian or gay—a method used in other studies examining sexual minority and heterosexual adoptive parents e. This collapsing of individual sexual minority identities e.
This generalized categorization may also overlook variability across individual identities Brodzinsky and Goldberg, Despite these limitations, we utilize this method of classifying participants to preserve power for our analyses. This widely used clinical measurement survey contains 53 items across nine domains each with corresponding subscales: depression, anxiety, somatization, obsession—compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychoticism.
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Items are scored on a Likert scale ranging from 0 not at all to 4 extremely. All 53 items 2 were summed and averaged to create a Global Severity Index GSI —higher scores indicate higher levels of overall psychological distress. The childcare competence subscale from the Who Does What? There are 20 items e. All 20 items are summed and averaged to create a total competence score. Higher scores indicate higher perceived parenting competence.
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This scale was only administered in W2 with parents completing the scale. The scale was validated in individuals identifying as cisgender and lesbian, gay, or bisexual. There are three subscales past, current, and impact ; each asks for a rating on all 45 items. Means were calculated for each subscale. Higher scores indicate more frequent experiences or greater impact.
In the scale validation study, experiencing a past homonegative microaggression was significantly moderated by impact in predicting self-esteem Wright and Wegner, Individuals who experienced greater past homonegative microaggressions were more likely to report having lower self-esteem when those experiences were highly impactful for the participant.
As such, these interaction terms i. This measure was only administered during W2. The IPPA consists of three subscales: trust, communication, and alienation. We created a composite score that provides a mean of all items, averaged across both parents. Higher scores indicate better relationship quality. First, we examined unconditional models with no predictors and only the outcome variables of interest i. Level 1 represents the calculation for parent—child relationship quality, Y ij.
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Level 2 represents a comparison of averages for the outcome variable. Interdependence of responses within families is controlled by the u 0 j coefficient.
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Missingness in terms of item non-response on key variables mental health symptoms, perceived parenting competence, perceived adoption stigma, parent—child relationship quality, all five homonegative microaggression variables was low for W1 variables averaging 1. To account for missingness, we used full information maximum likelihood FIML in the HLM models, an approach that is both widely recommended and appropriate for managing missing data in multilevel models Acock, ; Widaman, ; Johnson and Young, Power analyses were conducted using G Power Faul et al.
For bivariate correlations among variables of interest, achieved power was 0. For one-way ANOVA with four groups lesbian mothers, gay fathers, heterosexual mothers, heterosexual fathers , achieved power was 0. For multiple regression three predictors , achieved power was 0. Thus, analyses were mostly powered to detect medium to large effects.
Preliminary analyses i. Given previous research indicating the relevance to parent adjustment and family relationships of each of the following variables—child age Farr, , child gender Freeark et al. These analyses revealed no significant associations among covariates and variables of interest, so no demographic variables were included in subsequent analyses. A one-way ANOVA was conducted to assess differences by parent gender and sexual identity four groups; lesbian mothers, gay fathers, heterosexual mothers, heterosexual fathers in mental health symptoms, perceived parenting competence, and adoption stigma Table 3.
Significant differences were found, however, in perceived parenting competence at W1 and W2. In both waves, heterosexual fathers reported feeling less competent in their parenting ability than all other groups see Table 3 for descriptive information. No significant differences were found among the remaining three groups for perceived parenting competence. Finally, no significant differences were found in perceived adoption stigma at W2 by parent gender or sexual identity.
Five separate independent samples t -tests were conducted to assess differences between LG parents on the five homonegative microaggression variables at W2. No significant differences were found between LG parents among any of the five homonegative microaggression variables Table 4. HLM was used to assess differences by family type three groups: lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parent families in child-reported scores of parent—child relationships. Specifically, to compare by family type, the Level 2 equation provides a comparison of averages across family type, e.
As in previous HLM research involving indistinguishable dyads e. No significant differences were found in this variable among lesbian, gay, or heterosexual parent families. We also conducted these same analyses a second time with gay father families as the reference group such that comparisons were directly made between gay father families and lesbian mother families and between gay father families and heterosexual parent families.
The pattern of results was the same regardless of whether lesbian or gay parent families were the reference group. Homonegative microaggressions: means, standard deviations, t -tests, and effect sizes for lesbian mothers and gay fathers. No significant difference was found, however, between W1 and W2 means for perceived parenting competence. The omnibus model was not significant so we did not interpret the individual predictors see Supplementary Material.
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All five omnibus models were not significant, so we did not interpret the individual predictors see Supplementary Material. The omnibus model was not significant, so we did not interpret the individual predictors see Supplementary Material. Hierarchical linear modeling HLM : inventory of parent and peer attachment from wave 2 W2 variables whole sample.
Only current experiences i. Hierarchical linear modeling HLM : inventory of parent and peer attachment from wave 2 W2 variables in lesbian and gay LG parent families. First, parents were well-adjusted overall in terms of mental health and in reporting generally high levels of parenting competence. Parents also reported relatively low adoption stigma and children described high-quality parent—child relationships on average. LG parents also described few homonegative microaggressions overall. Aligned with general predictors from both family stress i. From a strengths-based perspective, greater parenting competence was linked with better parent—child relationship quality for all in the sample on average , and LG parents described themselves as particularly competent in their parenting roles.