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Join our family of volunteers! The spread of enrofloxacin-resistant strains documented in Israel was not clonal in nature [42]. Sub-typing studies on M. This hypothesis is currently being explored by our laboratory as far as French isolates are concerned. The pressure of antimicrobial therapy could be a major selective factor in M. Experimental data based on in vitro cultures in the presence of antimicrobials confirms that mycoplasmas can very rapidly acquire resistance to antimicrobials.
High levels of resistance to macrolides and enrofloxacin in M. During experimental infections in swine and chicken, infected by M. The rapidity with which resistance is selected may be related to the high mutation rate in mycoplasmas, likely due to a deficit in genetic information dedicated to DNA repair in mycoplasma genomes [51].
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Horizontal gene transfer is also an essential factor in the spread of resistance in other bacteria. In mycoplasmas, the possibility of frequent and large transfers that had been predicted earlier from in silico data [52] was very recently demonstrated in vitro [53]. However to date the only resistance genes known in mycoplasmas to be carried on a mobile genetic element conjugative transposon are the tet M gene that encode a tetracycline resistance [37].
The strategy of antibiotherapy could also be a predominant factor in the spread of resistant strains. The pronounced differences in incidence among countries may be explained by more extensive macrolide use in Asia for pneumonia treatment [54]. It may be the same for M. BRD is a multifactorial disease in which several agents occur simultaneously or sequentially, including viruses, mycoplasmas and classic bacteria, mainly Pasteurellaceae.
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Based on statistics from the network, first-line treatments recommended for BRD today in France target only these Pasteurellaceae and do not take into account mycoplasmas. It is likely that the administered antimicrobial treatments, by eliminating other competing bacteria, actually promote mycoplasmosis and lead to the more chronic forms described for M.
Furthermore, the absence of any systematic diagnosis for M. In support of this hypothesis, high levels of resistance have also been found in M. Choosing first-line active drugs to fight respiratory infections in vivo is the key for this type of epidemiological situation. Since there is no standard breakpoint for M.
These bacteria occur in the same disease i. BRD and at the same level extra-cellular and in deep lung as M. The conditions for reaching therapeutic concentrations in situ are therefore theoretically equivalent. Moreover, the scale of MIC values obtained in this study has proven comparable to that of standardised tests for classic bacteria. This antimicrobial, administered by the oral route, has experimentally proven to be effective in calves infected with M. Conclusions on the likely therapeutic effectiveness of these antimicrobials must be taken with caution: results on in vivo and in vitro susceptibility are not always concordant.
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Some treatments seem to be effective in experimental infection models despite the use of strains with high MIC values [3]. The efficacy of gamithromycin on a M. In contrast, therapeutic failures have been observed experimentally with M. Other factors could indirectly affect the efficacy of a treatment, such as the production of biofilms by mycoplasmas [59] or systematic reinfection after treatment [47]. Finally the frequency of resistant strains in this study may be overestimated compared to that of currently circulating strains.
The strains tested in this study came from diagnostic laboratories that were usually called after treatment failures. However, the rapidity of adaptation in mycoplasmas may exacerbate this bias in estimation. For instance, M. It is now generally accepted that M. The rapid decrease in susceptibility of this pathogen to antimicrobials is of high concern, particularly because it causes over-consumption of antimicrobials including those that are critical for human health.
It is now important to set up systematic screening of M. However, given the current situation and the speed at which resistance appears to be selected in mycoplasmas, alternative control measures must be rapidly set up, such as preventive health measures and the development of vaccines.
Lefriand and P. Cuchet for technical assistance and to F. Tardy and I. Kempf for critical reading of the manuscript. Browse Subject Areas? Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. Abstract Mycoplasma M. Materials and Methods Selection and Characteristics of M. Preparation of Inoculum for MIC Assays Mycoplasma cultures were prepared in appropriate media from several colonies picked on agar plates after isolation.
Antimicrobial Agents Tested Two groups of antimicrobials were successively tested. Quality Control Strains Three mycoplasma strains were included as quality control strains for each assay: the M. Results The procedure used in this study proved to be reproducible and accurate. Download: PPT. Figure 1. Figure 2. Discussion As with all Mollicutes, M. Procedure was Repeatable and Accurate, and Sampling Adequately Chosen to Address the Objectives The agar dilution method was used in this study because it has been recommended for M. The Susceptibility of M. The Prevalence of Multi-resistant M.
Conclusion It is now generally accepted that M. References 1. Citti C, Blanchard A Mycoplasmas and their host: emerging and re-emerging minimal pathogens. Trends Microbiol — View Article Google Scholar 2. J Vet Intern Med — View Article Google Scholar 3. Nicholas RA Bovine mycoplasmosis: silent and deadly. Vet Rec — View Article Google Scholar 4. Res Vet Sci — View Article Google Scholar 5. View Article Google Scholar 6. Vet Microbiol — View Article Google Scholar 7. Vet J 89— View Article Google Scholar 8.
Rec Med Vet — View Article Google Scholar 9. J Vet Diagn Invest 29—